Cite this article: Wang, C.-P. (2025). Social Justice and Educational Equity in the 21st Century: Trends and Changes Influenced by Neoliberalism. Bulletin of Educational Research, 71(4), 81-122. https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.202512_71(4).0003
引用文獻：王俊斌（2025）。21世紀社會正義與教育公平：新自由主義影響下的研究趨勢變化。教育研究集刊，71（4），81-122。https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.202512_71(4).0003
※Machine translation results are for reference only; please refer to the original text for accuracy. 機器翻譯結果僅供參考；準確性請以原文為準。
This study aims to explore the evolving discourse on social justice and educational equity, particularly in the face of the global challenges brought about by neoliberalism. Specifically, it analyzes different perspectives on educational equity, including economic approaches to resource distribution, political philosophical arguments on justice, and ethical concerns for human well-being. It further examines how neoliberalism reshapes educational structures and social equity through educational marketization, digital capitalism, and AI governance. Education is no longer merely a channel for individual social mobility but is increasingly embedded within the framework of globalization and human capital enhancement– yet this very trend has also led to a more severe erosion of educational publicness. In addition, the study situates its inquiry within the development of post-Rawlsian plural justice theories, while scrutinizing new trends in DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) and sustainability policies. In doing so, it seeks to propose forward-looking research observations that can provide both theoretical grounding and practical reference for addressing issues of educational equity in the 21st century.
This study adopts a multi-disciplinary perspective. It first takes J. Rawls’s theory of justice, particularly the difference principle that highlights the priority of the disadvantaged, as its theoretical point of departure, and then incorporates the Capability Approach proposed by A. Sen and M. Nussbaum. This integration underscores that educational equity should not be confined to the equal distribution of resources but should instead focus on whether individuals are able to transform resources into substantive freedoms and agency. In addition, the study engages with neoliberal economic thought as a critical lens for analyzing contemporary practices of educational marketization, accountability, and privatization. Through these multiple theoretical perspectives, the study examines how educational equity is challenged and reshaped under structural inequality. It further reveals how the dynamics of post-globalization and digital capitalism extend issues of educational justice beyond national boundaries, raising new concerns about global justice, intergenerational justice, and ecological justice.
This study primarily adopts a literature analysis approach, integrating perspectives from economics, political philosophy, and ethics to clarify the developmental trajectory and trends in research on educational equity. The research materials encompass international scholarly works, Taiwanese studies, policy documents, and reports from international organizations such as the OECD and UNESCO. The research focuses respectively on the impact of neoliberal governance models on educational institutions and publicness; the ways in which digital governance and AI technologies may exacerbate or mitigate educational inequality; and the potential and limitations of DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) policies within educational systems. Overall, the study aims to employ multiple theoretical perspectives and literature analysis to reveal the deep structural dynamics and future challenges of educational equity.
The study indicates that the neoliberal governance model of the 21st century has made the allocation of educational resources increasingly unequal, thereby intensifying the reproduction and consolidation of social stratification. Educational marketization tends to further reinforce the commodification of education and the objectification of students, which in turn leads to the marginalization of educational publicness and social responsibility. At the same time, while digital capitalism and AI governance have enhanced learning efficiency and the possibilities of personalized learning, they have also generated new forms of inequality, such as the digital divide and surveillance capitalism, posing greater challenges for disadvantaged groups. The study also finds that, under post-globalization conditions, research on educational equity must broaden its scope of concern to include intercultural justice, gender equality, diversity and inclusion, as well as ecological and interspecies justice. These emerging issues reveal that educational equity is no longer merely a matter of resource distribution but is increasingly tied to the very essence of education, the public good, and the future development of human society. Therefore, future education policies should strive to strike a balance between market competition and publicness, so as to ensure that education continues to serve as a crucial mechanism for the realization of social justice.
This study integrates social justice theory with critiques of neoliberalism, recommending that educational development should strike a balance between market competition and publicness, thereby avoiding the reduction of education to a purely market-driven logic. At the theoretical level, the study argues that educational equity should move beyond mere resource distribution toward capability development and the strengthening of publicness. At the practical level, education should maintain its core value as a public good while giving greater attention to: (1) deepening the dialogue among theories of justice, the Capability Approach, and critiques of neoliberalism; (2) promoting cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary methodological integration to construct a more holistic analytical perspective; (3) advancing cross-national comparison and international collaboration, with sustained attention to DEI policies and post-globalization challenges; (4) examining the long-term impact of marketization and privatization on educational publicness and social mobility; and (5) addressing new forms of inequality brought about by AI and digital governance, while extending the scope of educational equity to include ecological justice and interspecies ethics.l justice, neoliberalism, marketization, post-globalization.
本研究旨在深入探討當代社會正義與教育公平的研究變化，特別是面對新自由主義所帶來的全球性挑戰。具體而言，研究者分析不同視角對教育公平的詮釋，包括經濟思想的資源分配模式、政治哲學的正義論點，以及倫理學對人類福祉的關懷，更進一步關注新自由主義如何透過教育市場化、數位資本主義與AI治理技術，重塑教育結構與社會公平性。教育不再僅僅是個人社會流動的管道，同時也更被深嵌於全球化競爭與人力資本強化的運作架構，然此趨勢卻也讓教育公共性受到更嚴重的侵蝕。除此之外，本研究也以後羅爾斯多元正義研究的發展為脈絡，檢視教育政策中DEI（多元、公平與共融）與永續發展之新趨勢，據以提出具前瞻性研究議題的觀察，期為21世紀教育公平議題提供理論與實踐參考。
本研究採取跨學科的多重視角，首先以Rawls透過「差異原則」所揭示的弱勢優先正義理論為基礎，進而結合Sen與Nussbaum提出的能力取向，凸顯教育公平不應僅限於資源均分，而更應關注個體能否將資源轉化為實質自由與能動性。此外，本研究亦探討新自由主義經濟思想，以此作為對當代教育市場化、績效責任與私有化制度的批判切入點。透過多重理論的視角，本研究提供一個跨領域的思考取徑，用以分析教育公平如何在結構性不平等中受到挑戰並被重塑，並揭示後全球化與數位資本主義之挑戰，使教育正義議題跨越國界，進一步含納全球正義、跨世代正義及生態正義等新興課題。
本研究主要採用文獻探討的方法，並結合經濟學、政治哲學與倫理學等不同學科視角，呈現教育公平研究的演進脈絡與趨勢。研究資料涵蓋國際學術文獻、臺灣本土研究、政策文件，以及經濟合作暨發展組織（Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD）、聯合國教科文組織（United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO）等國際組織報告。研究焦點則分別涉及新自由主義治理模式對教育制度與公共性的影響、數位治理與AI技術如何加深或緩解教育不平，以及DEI政策在教育制度中的可能性與侷限性。整體而言，本研究旨在透過不同理論視角與系統性文獻分析，揭示教育公平議題的深層結構與未來挑戰。
研究指出，21世紀的新自由主義治理模式使教育資源配置愈加不均，進而加劇社會階層的再製與固化。教育市場化傾向進一步強化教育消費化，並使學生被視為客體，進而導致教育公共性與社會責任更被邊緣化。與此同時，數位資本主義與AI治理技術雖提升了學習效率與個人化學習的可能性，卻也帶來「數位落差」與「監控資本主義」等新型不平等，對弱勢群體構成更大挑戰。本研究同時發現，在後全球化狀況下，教育公平研究必須拓展關注面向，例如跨文化正義、性別平等、多元共融，以及生態與跨物種正義等。這些新興議題顯示教育公平已不僅是資源分配的問題，而更關乎教育本質、公共善與人類社會的未來發展。因此，未來教育政策應在市場競爭與公共價值之間取得平衡，以確保教育持續作為實現社會正義的關鍵角色。
本研究整合社會正義理論與新自由主義批判，建議教育發展應在市場競爭與公共性之間取得平衡，避免教育淪為單一的市場化思維。在理論上，本研究提出教育公平應由資源分配轉向能力培育與公共性強化；在實務上，教育應維持公共善之核心價值，並更關注：一、深化正義理論、能力取向與新自由主義批判的對話；二、推動跨領域或跨學科的方法整合，建構更具整全性的分析視角；三、透過跨國比較與國際合作，持續追蹤DEI政策與後全球化的挑戰；四、檢視市場化與私有化對教育公共性與社會流動的長期影響；五、回應AI與數位治理帶來的新型不平等，並拓展至生態正義與跨物種倫理。
王俊斌（2010）。論M. Nussbaum「能力取向」的正義觀與教育發展。教育研究集刊，56 （2），41-69。https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.201006_(56-2).0002 [Wang, C.-P. (2010). On M. Nussbaum’s capability approach to justice and its application to education. Bulletin of Educational Research, 56(2), 41-69. https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.201006_(56-2).0002]
王俊斌（2012）。效用、基本善與能力發展—論「平等」的多元視野及其教育蘊義。教育研究集刊，58（2），37-69。https://doi.org/10.3966/10288708201206002 [Wang, C.-P. (2012). Utility, primary goods, and the capabilities approach: Multiple perspectives on “equality” and their educational implications. Bulletin of Educational Research, 58(2), 37-69. https://doi.org/10.3966/10288708201206002]
王俊斌（2016）。教育制度中的社會正義理論分析—多元觀點與比較基礎建構。臺灣教育社會學研究，16（2），29-63。https://doi.org/10.3966/168020042016121602002 [Wang, C.-P. (2016). A study of social justice theories in educational systems: Multipleperspectives and construction of comparative foundation. Taiwan Journal of Sociology of Education, 16(2), 29-63. https://doi.org/10.3966/168020042016121602002]
王俊斌（2021）。摸索前行的教育奧德塞旅程—台灣實驗教育政策的理想與實際。載於楊洲松、王俊斌（主編），臺灣重大教育政策與改革的許諾與失落—批判性檢視（頁325-359）。學富。[Wang, C.-P. (2021). An educational odyssey of exploration: The ideals and realities of Taiwan’s experimental education policy. In C.-S. Yang & C.-P. Wang (Eds.), The promise and offtrack of Taiwan’s major educational policies and reforms: A critical review (pp. 325-359). Pro-Ed.]
王俊斌（2024a）。臺灣1990年代後師資培育改革的本體論政治初探：一種非工具性思維的觀點。教育研究集刊，70（2），33-71。https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.202406_70(2).0002 [Wang, C.-P. (2024a). A study of ontological politics of teacher education reform since the 1990s in Taiwan: A perspective of non-instrumental thinking. Bulletin of Educational Research, 70(2), 33-71. https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.202406_70(2).0002]
王俊斌（2024b）。以師資培育為特色之大學社會責任實踐及其挑戰。教育研究月刊，359，11-22。https://doi.org/10.53106/168063602024030359002 [Wang, C.-P. (2024b). University social responsibility practice of featured teacher education and its challenges. Journal of Education Research, 359, 11-22. https://doi.org/10.53106/168063602024030359002]
王俊斌（2025）。「學習化導向」作為一種教育治理技術：面對AI時代的能力取向教育社會學。臺灣教育社會學研究，25（1），107-152。https://doi.org/10.53106/168020042025062501003 [Wang, C.-P. (2025). “Learnification orientation” as a technique of educational governance: Capabilities-based sociology of education for the AI era. Taiwan Journal of Sociology of Education, 25(1), 107-152. https://doi.org/10.53106/168020042025062501003]
余桂霖（2010）。當代正義理論。秀威資訊科技。[Yu, G.-L. (2010). Contemporary theory of justice. Showwe Information.]
李奉儒（2014）。描繪臺灣教育改革論述:社會地圖學的應用。載於中國教育學會（主編），教改20年：回顧與前瞻（頁23-71）。學富。[Lee, F.-J. (2014). Mapping the discourse of education reform in Taiwan: An application of social cartography. In The Chinese Society of Education (Ed.), 20 years of educational reform: A review and prospects (pp. 23-71). Pro-Ed.]
李奉儒（2023）。臺灣高等教育改革30年的回顧：新自由主義的衝擊與批判省思。教育研究集刊，69（4），1-39。https://doi.org/10.53106/102887082023126904001 [Lee, F.-J. (2023). A review of Taiwan’s higher education reform in 30 years: The impact and critical reflection of neoliberalism. Bulletin of Educational Research, 69(4), 1-39. https://doi.org/10.53106/102887082023126904001]
林永豐、郭俊呈（2011）。後期中等教育公平指標之發展與建構。教育政策論壇，14 （4），115-142。[Lin, Y.-F., & Kuo, C.-C. (2011). Constructing equal opportunity indicators of upper secondary education. Educational Policy Forum, 14(4), 115-142.]
林生傳（1999）。性別教育機會均等的分析、檢討與實踐。教育學刊，15，1-34。[Lin, S.-C. (1999). Sex-equity education– Concept, current status, and implementation. Educational Review, 15, 1-34.]
姜添輝（2015）。臺灣高等教育政策依循新自由主義的現象與缺失。臺灣教育社會學研究，15（2），131-165。https://doi.org/10.3966/168020042015121502004 [Chiang, T.-H. (2015). Why do higher education policies in Taiwan incline towards neoliberalism? A critique on this approach. Taiwan Journal of Sociology of Education, 15(2), 131-165. https://doi.org/10.3966/168020042015121502004]
姜添輝（2020）。新自由主義治理性視角下的全球化教育改革運動。教育學報，16（2），311-338。https://doi.org/10.14082/j.cnki.16731298.2020.02.001 [Chiang, T.-H. (2020). The analysis of global education reform movement in the perspective of neoliberal governmentality. Journal of Educational Studies, 16(2)，311-338. https://doi.org/10.14082/j.cnki.16731298.2020.02.001]
張志明、吳家瑩（2011）。國民小學教育公平指標之研究。教育政策論壇，14（4），143-171。https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404006 [Chang, C.-M., & Wu, C.-Y. (2011). The study of the indicators of educational equity for elementary schools. Educational Policy Forum, 14(4), 143-171. https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404006]
張建成（2007）。獨石與巨傘—多元文化主義的過與不及。教育研究集刊，53（2），103-127。[Chang, C.-C. (2007). A monolith or an umbrella: The multicultural predicaments. Bulletin of Educational Research, 53(2), 103-127.]
張建成（2014）。再論多元文化教育的困境。教育研究集刊，60（3），111-128。https://doi.org/10.3966/102887082014096003004 [Chang, C.-C. (2014). Revisiting the multicultural myths. Bulletin of Educational Research, 60(3), 111-128. https://doi.org/10.3966/102887082014096003004]
張國保、胡茹萍、廖俊仁、江翊嘉（2011）。我國技職教育公平指標建構之探討。教育政策論壇，14（4），89-114。https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404004 [Chang, K.-P., Hu, R.-P., Liao, J.-J., & Chiang, Y.-C. (2011). Inquiring and constructing the indicators of equity for technological and vocational education in Taiwan. Educational Policy Forum, 14(4), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404004]
教育部（1993）。國民小學課程標準。[Ministry of Education. (1993). National primary school curriculum standards.]
教育部（2008）。發展國際一流大學及頂尖研究中心計畫。https://www.edu.tw/plannews_detail.aspx?sn=116&pages=7 [Ministry of Education. (2008). Policy plan for developing world-class universities and top
research centers. https://www.edu.tw/plannews_detail.aspx?sn=116&pages=7]
教育部（2014）。十二年國民基本教育課程綱要總綱。https://www.naer.edu.tw/upload/1/16/doc/288/%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E5%B9%B4%E5%9C%8B%E6%95%99%E8%AA%B2%E7%A8%8B%E7%B6%B1%E8%A6%81%E7%B8%BD%E7%B6%B1.pdf [Ministry of Education. (2014). Curriculum guidelines of 12-year basic education_General guidelines. https://www.naer.edu.tw/upload/1/16/doc/288/%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E5%B9%B4%E5%9C%8B%E6%95%99%E8%AA%B2%E7%A8%8B%E7%B6%B1%E8%A6%81%E7%B8%BD%E7%B6%B1.pdf]
教育部（2020）。中華民國原住民族教育年鑑1945-2018。https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1DKzkhlEot7F1lCKulOJc5aNrS4GQnXCA [Ministry of Education. (2020). Yearbook of indigenous education in the Republic of China 1945-2018. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1DKzkhlEot7F1lCKulOJc5aNrS4GQnXCA]
陳伯璋（2009）。當前多元文化教育實踐與省思—兼論新多元文化教育的可能。教育與多元文化研究，1，1-15。[Chen, P.-C. (2009). A study of the multicultural education in practice and reflection. Journal of Educational and Multicultural Research, 1, 1-15.]
陳伯璋（2012）。追求卓越之後。臺灣教育評論月刊，1（6），26-27。[Chen, P.-C. (2012). After the pursuit of excellence. Taiwan Educational Review Monthly, 1(6), 26-27.]
陳振遠、樊國恕、蘇國瑋、何希慧、侯永琪、陳振宇、許文瑞（2011）。發展國際一流大學及頂尖研究中心計畫之評估研析。研考雙月刊，35（3），84-96。[Chen, J.-Y., Fan, K.-S., Su, K.-W., Ho, S.-H., Hou, Y.-C., Chen, J.-Y., & Hsu, W.-R. (2011). An evaluation analysis of the plan for developing world-class universities and top research centers. Journal of Research and Examination, 35(3), 84-96.]
黃昆輝（主編）（2019）。邁向公義與卓越：台灣教育的問題與對策研究。黃昆輝教授教育基金會。[Huang, K.-H. (Ed.). (2019). Towards justice and excellence: A study of problems and solutions in Taiwan’s education. Professor Huang Kun-Huei Education Foundation.]
楊深坑（2008）。社會公義、差異政治與教育機會均等的新視野。當代教育研究，16（4），1-37。https://doi.org/10.6151/CERQ.2008.1604.01 [Yang, S.-K. (2008). Social justice, politics of difference and a new perspective of educational equity. Contemporary Educational Research Quarterly, 16(4), 1-37. https://doi.org/10.6151/CERQ.2008.1604.01]
楊瑩、楊國賜、劉秀曦（2011）。我國高等教育公平指標之研究。教育政策論壇，14（4），35-62。https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404002 [Chan, Y., Yang, K.-S., & Liu, H.-H. (2011). A study on the indicators of equity of higher education in Taiwan. Educational Policy Forum, 14(4), 35-62. https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404002]
詹美華（2008）。教科書市場化議題之論述分析。教科學研究，1（2），1-28。[Zhan, M.-H. (2008). A discourse analysis on the critical issue of textbook marketization. Journal of Textbook Research, 1(2), 1-28.]
劉美慧（2012）。文化回應教學。載於譚光鼎、劉美慧、游美惠，多元文化教育（三版，頁327-355）。高等教育。[Liu, M.-H. (2012). Culturally relevant pedagogy. In G.-D. Tan, M.-H. Liu, & M.-H. You, Multicultural education (3rd ed., pp. 327-355). Higher Education.]
歐用生（1985）。我國國民小學社會科教書意識型態之分析。新竹師專學報，12，91-125。[Ou, Y.-S. (1985). Analysis of ideologies in social studies textbooks for elementary schools in Taiwan. Journal of Hsinchu Normal College, 12, 91-125.]
歐用生（1997）。「一綱一本教科書事件」平議。教科書研究，1（1），1-28。[Ou, Y.-S. (1997). One-guideline-one-version textbook contention: A critique and analysis. Journal of Textbook Research, 1(1), 1-28.]
歐用生（2006）。課程理論與實踐。學富。[Ou, Y.-S. (2006). Curriculum theory and practice. Pro-Ed.]
蔡金田（2012）。國民中學教育公平指標建構之研究。教育政策論壇，15（3），167-203。https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982012081503006 [Tsai, C.-T. (2012). A study on the construction of educational equity indicators of junior high schools. Educational Policy Forum, 15(3), 167-203. https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982012081503006]
鄭勝耀（2011）。弱勢教育公平指標之研究。教育政策論壇，14（4），63-88。https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404003 [Cheng, S.-Y. (2011). A study on the educational equity indicators for disadvantaged students. Educational Policy Forum, 14(4), 63-88. https://doi.org/10.3966/156082982011101404003]
Acemoglu, D., & Johnson, S. (2023). Power and progress: Our thousand-year struggle over technology and prosperity. Public Affairs.
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail. Crown.
Alfonseca, K. (2025, January 25). A look at what DEI means amid Trump executive orders. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/dei-programs/story?id=97004455
Anderson-Levitt, K. M. (2008). Globalization and curriculum. In F. M. Connelly (Ed.), The Sage handbook of curriculum and instruction (pp. 349-368). Sage.
Apple, M. W. (2006). Educating the “right” way: Markets, standards, god, and inequality (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Ball, S. J., & Grimaldi, E. (2022). Neoliberal education and the neoliberal digital classroom. Learning, Media and Technology, 47(2), 288-302.
Chiang, T.-H., Thurston, A., & MacKenzie, A. (2024). Lifelong learning as a governing technique of subjectivation from the perspective of the discourse of hope and fear. Frontiers in Political Science, 6, 1404956. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2024.1404956
Cohen, G. A. (1993). Equality of what? On welfare, goods, and capabilities. In M. Nussbaum & A. Sen (Eds.), The quality of life (pp. 9-29). Clarendon Press.
Coleman, J. S. (1994). Foundations of social theory. Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1990)
Collier, P., & Kay, J. (2020). Greed is dead: Politics after individualism. Allen Lane.
Comim, F., Fennell, S., & Anand, P. B. (2018). Frontiers of the capability approach. Cambridge University Press.
Daniela, L. (2022). Inclusive digital education. Springer.
de Haan, P. (2016). From Keynes to Piketty: The century that shook up economics. Palgrave Macmillan.
Drucker, P. (1993). Post capitalist society. Harper Business.
Edgerton, D. (2021). What came between new liberalism and neoliberalism? Rethinking Keynesianism, the welfare state and social democracy. In A. Davies, B. Jackson, & F. Sutcliffe-Braithwaite (Eds.), The neoliberal age? Britain since the 1970s (pp. 30-46). UCL Press.
European Commission. (2022). Towards equity and inclusion in higher education in Europe. Europe Union. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/fa946919-b564-11ec-b6f4-01aa75ed71a1/language-en
European Commission. (2023). Eurydice report: Promoting diversity and inclusion in schools in Europe. Europe Union.
Freeman, S. (2006). Rawls and moral philosophy. In S. Freeman (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Rawls (pp. 273-316). Cambridge University Press.
Friedman, M. (1951). Neo-liberalism and its prospects. Farmand, 17, 89-93.
Green, A. (1990). Education and state formation: Europe, East Asia, and the USA. Routledge.
Grimaldi, E., & Ball, S. J. (2021a). The blended learner: Digitalisation and regulated freedomneoliberalism in the classroom. Journal of Education Policy, 36(3), 393-416. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2019.1704066
Grimaldi, E., & Ball, S. J. (2021b). Neoliberal education and the neoliberal digital classroom. Learning, Media and Technology, 47(2), 288-302.
Grimaldi, E., & Ball, S. J. (2021c). Paradoxes of freedom: An archaeological analysis of educational online platform interfaces. Critical Studies in Education, 62(1), 114-129.
Gupta, A. (2023). Diversity, dignity, equity, and inclusion in the age of division, discord and disunion: Stereotyping, sexist, hegemony in education. International Education Studies, 16(1), 110-117. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v16n1p110
Haakonssen, K., & Winch, D. (2006). The legacy of Adam Smith. In K. Haakonssen (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith (pp. 366-394). Cambridge University Press.
Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford University Press.
Hayek, F. A. (1944). The road to serfdom. Routledge.
Hertz, N. (2001). The silent takeover: Global capitalism and the death of democracy. Free Press.
Hofmeyr, B. (2022). Foucault and governmentality: Living to work in the age of control. Rowman & Littlefield. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2021.1963980
Huang, J. (2023). NVIDIA CEO Jensen Huang reveals keys to AI, leadership [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwiM_nPyx5Y
Jones, D. S. (2012). Masters of the universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the birth of neoliberal politics. Princeton University Press.
Kissel, J. (2021). Why adequacy isn’t enough: Educational justice, positional goods and class power. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 55(2), 287-301. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12544
Knox, J., Williamson, B., & Bayne, S. (2020). Machine behaviourism: Future visions of ‘learnification’ and ‘datafication’ across humans and digital technologies. Learning, Media and Technology, 45(1), 31-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2019.1623251
Kuo, S.-Y. (2005). Does multicultural education really benefit various cultures? Bulletin of Educational Research, 51(4), 73-88. https://doi.org/10.6910/BER.200512_(51-4).0003
Lieberman, D. (2006). Adam Smith on justice, rights, and law. In K. Haakonssen (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith (pp. 214-245). Cambridge University Press.
Lowe, R. (2021). Schooling and social change since 1760: Creating inequalities through education. Routledge.
Mehta, P. B. (2006). Self-interest and other interests. In K. Haakonssen (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith (pp. 246-269). Cambridge University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Poetic justice: The literary, imagination and public life. Beacon Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2006). Frontiers of justice: Disability, nationality, species membership. Harvard University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human development approach. Harvard University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2015). Philosophy and economics in the capabilities approach: An essential dialogue. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 16(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2014.983890
Open AI. (2023). GPT-4 technical report. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2303.08774
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). Future of education and skills 2030: OECD learning compass 2030. http://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-learning/learning/learning-compass-2030/OECD_Learning_Compass_2030_Concept_Note_Series.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-opreation and Development. (2022). Trends shaping education 2022. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/6ae8771a-en
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2023). Equity and inclusion in education: Finding strength through diversity. https://doi.org/10.1787/e9072e21-en
Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Harvard University Press.
Piketty, T. (2024). Nature, culture, and inequality: A comparative and historical perspective. Other Press.
Putnam, H., & Walsh, V. (2012). The end of value-free economics. Routledge.
Rawls, J. (1963). The sense of justice. The Philosophical Review, 72(3), 281-305. https://doi.org/10.2307/2183165
Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press.
Rawls, J. (1999a). Justice as fairness. In S. Freeman (Ed.), John Rawls: Collected papers (pp.47-72). Harvard University Press.
Rawls, J. (1999b). Kantian constructivism in moral theory. In S. Freeman (Ed.), John Rawls: Collected papers (pp. 303-358). Harvard University Press.
Robeyns, I. (2017). Wellbeings, freedom and social justice: The capability approach reexamined. Open Book.
Rufo, C. F. (2023). DEI and the end of the Constitutional Order. In American’s cultural revolution: How the radical left conquered everything (pp. 240-267). Broadside Books.
Sandel, M. J. (2009). Justice: What’s the right thing to do. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Sen, A. (1982). Equality of what. In A. K. Sen (Ed.), Choice, welfare and measurement (pp. 353-369). Harvard University Press.
Sen, A. (1987). On ethics and economics. Blackwell.
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.
Sen, A. (2009). The idea of justice. Harvard University Press.
Sharma, A., Seethepalli, S., & Kirkovska, A. (2024). Analysis: GPT-4o vs GPT-4 Turbo. Vellum. https://www.vellum.AI/blog/analysis-gpt-4o-vs-gpt-4-turbo
Simons, H. C. (1934). A positive program for laissez faire: Some proposals for a liberal economic policy. University of Chicago Press.
Smith, A. (1976). The theory of moral sentiments. Liberty Fund.
Smith, A. (2009). The wealth of nations. Thrifty Books.
The White House. (2025, January 20). Ending radical and wasteful government DEI programs and preferencing. https://bit.ly/3XYZabc
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2021). AI and education: Guidance for policy-makers. https://www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en
University of Michigan. (2025). Defining DEI: Diversity, Equity & Inclusion. https://diversity.umich.edu/about/defining-dei/
Van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2017). Digital divide: Impact of access. In P. Rössler, C. A. Hoffner, & L. van Zoonen (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of media effects (pp. 1-11). John Wiley & Sons.
Walker, M., & McLean, M. (2015). Professionals and public-good capabilities. Critical Studies in Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 60-82. https://doi.org/10.14426/cristal.v3i2.42
